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Literary Definitions

Posted by Jeanette Cooper on June 16, 2009 at 10:26 AM comments (1)

Least Tern > English Classroom

Literary Terms for English

This guide was originally prepared for a grade 6 laptop English class. It is meant to be introductory in nature and relaxed in language. Any poetry anthology or literary survey text would provide a context for the terms. There is a good handbook/guide to other literary devices at this Lewis Carroll site and an excellent glossary of poetic devices at the University of Toronto. John McIlvain has written a guide to Introductory Poetry Terms with many poems included in full-text.

Literary Forms | Techniques of the Writer or Storyteller

Figurative Language | A Literary Vocabulary | Terms Specific to Poetry

Literary Forms (fiction) - many novels are written in more than one form, and there are many more forms than we will study in English 6. This is a beginner's sampling.

1. Historical fiction - a "made up" story which has as setting a specific and recognizable historical time period which could not have been during the author's lifetime. These novels and stories often include characters and places which are historically accurate, and many include historical documents as well. Examples of historical fiction are: Dragonwings, The Whipping Boy, Proud Taste for Scarlet and Miniver.

2. Documentary fiction - a "made up" story which uses a collage of documents, in addition to dialogue and narration, to help to tell the story. Some documentary fiction you will read as an adult uses actual news stories, letters, diaries, etc., but the story is the author's invention. Example: Nothing But the Truth.

3. Science fiction - originally, a story which used the science of the future as a major element of plot or setting. This meaning has been stretched to include all future or utopian, time travel, space, alien contact, and dimension travel stories, as well as to include some elements of fantasy. Examples: A Wrinkle in Time, The Giver, many stories by author Ray Bradbury.

4. Folklore, folk tale, fairy tale - originally "oral tradition stories," memorized and passed from person to person through the telling, these tend to have messages for the listener to decipher and definite similarities in plot, characters, and settings. You study these stories in Lower School. In Middle School, you need to remember them and watch for "folklore" elements to appear in your reading. Examples of books rich in folklore references: The 13 Clocks, The Magic Circle, Haroun, The Other Side of Silence.

5. Realistic Fiction - novels and stories which are "real" in that they take place in a time and place like a present, or recent past, time and place, have plots which are possible, and have characters which are believable as real people. Examples: Hatchet, Shabanu.

6. Fantasy - fantasy novels and stories cover a wide range of "real-unreal" plots, characters and settings. Some identifying characteristics are: animals as characters, magical events, imaginary beings as characters. Fantasies often involve a search or quest of some type and ask the reader to temporarily believe in the possibility of events and characters. Examples: Alice in Wonderland, The Story of the Amulet, The Wizard of Earthsea, The Hobbit, Watership Down.

7. Mystery - a mystery novel contains a puzzle and challenges the reader to join the detective character who eventually solves the puzzle. Collecting clues is a vital skill for mystery readers. Examples: The House of Dies Drear, The Westing Game, The Hound of the Baskervilles.

Techniques of the Writer or Story Teller

? The Rule of 3 - Things happen in 3's. You should be on the lookout for: 3 related events, 3 connected characters, 3 rules, 3 punishments, 3 objects, 3 relationships which are compared and contrasted.

? Types of characters:

o Major or Minor:

Major characters appear throughout the novel, or in a major section of it - they are involved in the important actions and conflicts.

Minor characters enter the novel for a specific reason and may then not be heard of again - or they may exist throughout the novel "in the shadow" of the major character - they may be involved in a conflict with a major character and are essential to the plot, but only so that something can be learned or shown about the major character.

o Round or Flat:

Round Characters have many sides - they grow or change in several ways - they think and react on many levels - they are central to the story, its conflicts, and its final message - we care about them and tend to react along with them to the things that happen.

Flat Characters have only one side - they may be major characters, but they do not change - flat characters are important to a story because the round character(s) interact with them - we often see them only as the round characters see them and care about them because a round character does - we may feel strongly about a flat character because he/she is a strong and consistent representative of Good or of Evil.

? Narrative Focus - The character around whom the story moves - we often see only those events which this character witnesses - if we see events which do not involve the narrative focus, we are anxious about how the events will impact upon this character.

? Narration - There are 3 ways of telling a story:

o 1st person - "I" tells the story and is a character in the story; this can be present tense or past tense.

o 2nd person - "You" is used to tell the story; these tend to be like Choose Your Own Adventure stories or computer games and are usually in the present tense.

o 3rd person - "He, she, it, they" - the story is told by someone, usually not identified by name, who knows it. Usually in the past tense.

? Types of Narration - An author has to decide how much the narrator knows about the people and events in the story. A narrator, 1st or 3rd person, can be:

o Limited - The narrator only knows what he/she experiences or learns about in some way- the narrator's knowledge grows as the story unfolds; at times, the reader may know more than the narrator.

o Omniscient - The "all knowing" narrator knows all of the details about events, characters, etc. and reveals them to the reader as the story unfolds.

Figurative Language - In general, this is a way of using words to make imaginative connections in the reader's "inner eye." These connections can be called images. As you learn to recognize and appreciate figurative language, your appreciation and ability to actively read good writing will increase. These are the types of figurative language on which we will concentrate this year:

? Metaphor - the comparison of two unlike things to suggest things which they have in common - for example: Joe is a lion on the playing field would compare Joe to a lion in how he moves, his aggression, his animal-like actions, his skill and strength, his leadership. When you identify a metaphor, you have to dig deeply to find all of the layers of possible meaning.

? Simile - a comparison of two unlike things using like or as - for example: Sue flits through life like a moth in a room of candles compares Sue to a delicate, fluttering moth which is drawn to fire and raises an image of both delight and confusion, perhaps also mindlessness and upcoming death or failure. Like a metaphor, a simile can seem obvious, but it is usually telling you something about a character or setting if you are willing to dig a little deeper.

? Personification - the description of an inanimate object as if it were a human being or an animal - for example: The kite tugged and pulled at the string, longing for the freedom of the skies gives the kite human actions and a motive for them. In using personification the author asks the reader to identify with the object or character viewing it more deeply than would be possible in a simple description.

? Extended metaphor - a paragraph or longer of description which builds upon an initial metaphor, often bringing several of the senses (sight, sound, touch, hearing, taste) into play. This is often used by an author seeking to make a point in a setting description or seeking to create a character for the narrator or narrative focus (e.g.: imaginative, naive, fanciful, terrified)

? Hyperbole - an obvious and unrealistic exaggeration - for example: His gaping jaw could hold a flock of the King's fattest sheep indicates excess and perhaps a fearful or highly imaginative narrative focus. A good way to identify hyperbole is to ask yourself the old tall-tale question: Just how [tall, wide, hungry, lazy, angry...] was he/she/it?

? Onomatopoeia - use of a word which sounds like it means - for example: plunk, zip, buzz, bong, zap all have meaning which is reinforced by the sound of the word. Repetition of onomatopoeic words is used by authors to create a mood or tone and to convey sense impressions (e.g. motion, touch, sound)

? Pun - a word which has several meanings, all of which apply; puns are often based on sound, so homophones and homonyms have to be though of as well - for example: In Induction I of Taming of the Shrew the bum Sly states "I smell" when testing to see if he is awake; he can smell, but he also does smell. Puns are generally a source of humor, but they can also be cruel or unkind. Lewis Carroll is very fond of puns and uses them to good effect in Alice.

? Oxymoron - a phrase which contains opposite elements or words with opposite meanings, yet which expresses one idea when taken as a whole - for example: Bottom says in Midsummer Night's Dream, "I'll speak in a monstrous little voice."

Literary Vocabulary

? Setting - time (date, time of day, season) and place - a piece of writing will generally have many settings and each setting will generally carry with it a mood or atmosphere.

? Plot - what happens, concretely, as though it were placed on a history time line.

? Incident - one specific thing which happens in a plot. Many short stories are basically one incident described in detail.

? Theme - the answer to this question: What is this all about? Themes tend to be the author's message about important human conditions or problems, such as Good and Evil, Death, Freedom, Bondage, Hope, the Quest, Heritage, Believing, Family, Relationships, The Role of Women in Society. The Theme Statement is your one sentence summary of what the author or the work (novel, story, poem, play) has to say about an overall theme - for example: A theme of the novel Dragonwings is that the support of family is essential in a good life. Stories, plays and poems will have more than one theme about which you can formulate more than one theme statement. But be careful - you must be able to support a theme statement with specific evidence from the story, play or poem itself. Another expression for theme of a poem is the abstract meaning.

? Mood or atmosphere or tone - the overall feeling created by a piece of writing. Mood can often be described in a few words, such as scary, lonely, empty, triumphant, anxious, but you must be able to refer to specific details in the description, setting, or passage to defend your word or words.

? Dialogue - a discussion or conversation between two or more characters. Most dialogues follow the rules of punctuation. Do not confuse dialogue with a play script. Dialogue is part of, or sometimes all of, a story or novel and this is what you should write when you asked to write a dialogue.

? Monologue - one character alone talking to the reader/audience/to himself. A monologue in a play is called a soliloquy and finds the character alone on the stage, often speaking about a decision, plan, or other internal conflict.

? Interior monologue or internal monologue - a character thinking to himself. The author will often begin this by saying: He thought, he was thinking, she imagined...

? Malapropism - substitution of "fancy" or "pompous" words, often opposite to the intended meanings or meaningless, for a correct word - for example: in Midsummer Night's Dream Bottom says, "We will rehearse most obscenely (seemly?) and courageously."

? Character traits of a character - what type of person is this? Character traits are revealed through actions, dialogue, internal monologue, and by the author or narrator directly.

? Motive - why a character does what he/she does. Motives are often feelings or logical conclusions, but can be also impulse based upon the actions or words of another. Every action has a motive.

? External Conflict - a fight, argument, disagreement or simply opposition in which 2 sides are present. Characters, themes, ideas, forces can all be in conflict. Conflicts are stated this way: Joe vs. Sue, man vs. nature, love vs. hate, freedom vs. bondage, free vs. caged, beautiful vs. ugly. Be sure that both sides of the vs. are the same part of speech and that they are, in fact, nearly opposite or in opposition in the book. An external conflict is shown through actions (fight, argument, physical struggle), character traits (a good and a bad character), dialogues, descriptions - just about anything. Identification of conflicts will lead you to theme. The resolution of the external conflict will advance the plot toward the climax and the end.

? Internal Conflict - an argument or decision-making process within one character's mind. An internal conflict is stated this way: Should I swallow my pride and go visit my son, or should I wait until he comes to me with an apology? An internal conflict has a motive and its resolution is important to the development of the plot.

? Plot diagram

A. Introduction or Exposition - setting, characters, main conflicts are introduced to the reader; this is the beginning of a novel or story and may be short or long, but is always flat (little action or emotion).

B. Rising Action - the round characters are developed, the conflicts are increased and acted out in many ways, motives are introduced, things happen; generally, the major part of a novel or story.

C. Climax - the "high point" of a story in which the major conflicts erupt in some kind of final showdown (fight, argument, violent or physical action, very tense emotional moment...); at the end of the climax, the "winner" will be clear (there is not always a winner!).

D. Falling Action - what events immediately follow the climax; a kind of "cleaning up."

E. Resolution - where everything ends; the reader may have some sense of "closure" or may be asked to think about what might come next; in fairy tales, the Happy Ending; in some novels, you will read about the characters many years later.

? Irony - There are 3 types of irony which you need to know:

o Irony of situation - when the reverse of the expected happens or when the person you least expect to do something, does it - for example: It is ironic that Cinderella gets the prince; it is ironic in Dragonwings that the Chinese own and are able to rebuild houses upon the land denied to them by the Demons; it is ironic in Dragonwings that Black Dog dies in the same manner that he tries to kill Moon Shadow.

o Dramatic irony - when the viewer or the reader is aware of a situation of which the character(s) are not aware - for example: In Romeo and Juliet the reader knows that Juliet is not really dead, but Romeo does not know this. Another example is when the audience knows that Lysander is "drugged" into loving Helena, but he does not know this. Dramatic irony can be a source of tragedy, of comedy, or of tension.

o Irony of language - when a name or description refers to or suggests the opposite of truth - for example: In Dragonwings the leader of a fierce brotherhood/gang is called Water Fairy. The irony is not just that the name is inappropriate, but that it was earned in an inappropriate way. Irony of language is often used for humor, but it can also be cruel or sarcastic. The name of the character Lefty, in Dragonwings, is as ironic as his situation.

? Coincidence - something which happens by chance. Authors use coincidence to advance the plot, to create and resolve conflicts, and sometimes just for humor or to startle the reader.

? Mirroring or parallels - A character or incident mirrors another character or incident when the two follow similar plots, act in similar ways or contain similar elements or traits. Remember, though, that a mirror image is also opposite - left is right. So one mirror character may be rich, the other poor; one relationship may end happily, the other unhappily. Authors use mirrors to add depth to stories and to increase the reader's interest in and appreciation for the characters and their situations. Mirrors are used frequently on situation comedy shows - watch for them!

? concrete meaning - in a poem or story, what happens, in one sentence if possible. For example:

o Upon my bed

Lies the bright moonlight

Like frost upon the earth.

Lifting my eyes,

I see the bright moon.

Closing my eyes,

I see home. (from Dragonwings)

The concrete meaning is this: The narrator is in a strange bed at night and the light of the moon makes him think of home.

? abstract meaning - the theme or message of the poem or story. This has to be based on the concrete meaning, upon what is actually in the poem, and should also take conflicts into consideration. For example:

In the poem above, the abstract meaning might be: Loneliness and homesickness are cold feelings, but we are warmed by our memories of home.

? literal vs. figurative meaning - relates to the meanings of words and phrases or expressions. For example, "She was all ears" has a figurative meaning (She was listening intently) as well as a literal meaning (Her body was composed of ears or she had a huge set of ears). Lewis Carroll and other authors use and confuse the meanings to create nonsense and humor. In some novels, characters who are literal-minded are a source of ridicule.

Terms more specific to the way poets use words: see also John McIlvain's Introductory Poetry Terms

? The Form of a poem - The elements of form are number of lines, rhyme, rhythm, number of stanzas, and (for us) rules of grammar (standard or nonstandard).

? Stanza - a group of lines of poetry, like a paragraph, set off usually by a blank space. Poets create stanzas for a reason. The lines belong together.

? Rhyme - The repetition of sound, almost always to achieve an effect or to create a rhythm.

end rhyme is the repetition of the end sounds of the words at the ends of lines of poetry;

near rhyme or off rhyme or slant rhyme is not quite true or pure - "tree" rhyme with "hurry";

internal rhyme rhymes a word in the middle of a line of poetry with a word elsewhere in the line.

? Rhythm - is the beat or pattern of stressed and unstressed lines. We will try to identify patterns this year. For example, read the following lines out loud. The pattern is shown under the words.

Many poems do not use rhythm.

? Free verse - poetry which does not have a regular rhythm, rhyme scheme, or form. Some free verse poems also do not use punctuation or capitalization, or they otherwise break the rules of grammar.

? Fulcrum of a poem - Poems, like stories, are built upon contrast and conflict. The fulcrum is that point in the poem in which the contrasting or conflicting ideas, images, or moods are resolved - one wins out. A fulcrum is often the most emotional line or lines and often carries the clue to meaning.

? Alliteration - The repetition of sound within a line of poetry (or prose). We will watch for two types of alliteration:

assonance - the repetition of vowel sounds (a, e, i, o, u, ou, ea, etc.) - "I wore a fleecy green jacket easy and tall."

consonance - is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words within a line of poetry - "Slanting silver slits of rain."

? Couplet - two lines of poetry which are a self-contained unit, often rhyming and often one sentence (but not always).

Least Tern

Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain 3/16/04

http://www.tameri.com/write/plotnstory.html

C. S. Wyatt & Susan D. Schnelbach

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Plots & Stories

A plot is not a story, nor does every story have a strong plot. Good writers know the importance of both plot and story, especially before they dare to write a story with a “weak” or “thin” plot. Something to ponder: any plot can feature love story; that illustrates the difference.

Plot

Contrary to many general-purpose dictionaries, a plot is not the main story of a work. A plot is the series of events providing conflict within a story. The search for a murderer is a plot. Surviving a natural disaster is a plot. A plot can be summarized without specific names or settings. (Do not argue with teachers about this… plot is whatever they want it to be!)

The plot is sometimes called the “spine” of a story. The plot is the action, while the story is the emotions associated with the action. Yes, a plot can be caused by the emotions of characters, but the action is apart from the story. Plots are the results of choices made by the characters: the characters take action (or don’t) and events happen as a result.

Aristotle set the “rules” for modern plots: there is a beginning, middle, and end. The beginning is short, the ending shorter, and the middle is where most of the plot twists reside. If you write 100 pages, it might take 30 to introduce the characters and plot, 50 for the twists, and 20 for the ending. The beginning ends with the introduction of the primary plotline. The middle ends with a climactic showdown.

Many writers “plot” their plots, like a timeline. It helps to see where choices are made and actions taken, so you can pace the story. Pacing is important because most stories accelerate in action as they progress. While the beginning events might last days, the end usually occurs in hours.

Two Sentence Test

It should be possible to state a plot in one or two sentences. If a plot requires more than two dozen words to describe, it is too complex. The primary plot is simple; the story is complex. The more provocative, unusual, and thoughtful a plot, the more likely a reader or audience is to want to know the complete story. Shakespeare’s plots are simple, but the plays have wonderful depth. Tom Clancy spy novels are long and complex, but the plots are easy to state. Think about your favorite stories and how simple the primary plots are.

Conflicts Big and Small

The plot of a work is the basic conflict, either from which or alongside other conflicts are created. An effective plot contains one major conflict.

Generally, if you cannot state the plot in a 12-word sentence then you have no idea what the plot is. If you are the author, that is a bad sign. There are only three or four “simple plots” according to most books:

1. Man versus man.

2. Man versus nature.

3. Man versus self.

4. Man versus man’s work.

The fourth type of plot tends to be considered a variation of man versus man. And don’t gripe about our use of “man” — it’s meant as a generic term for whatever species, gender, etc. the main character happens to be.

Man versus Man

A “man-versus-man” plot features a central character and an opposition character as the primary actors. The central character has a goal and the opposition is going to attempt to stop the central character before he or she obtains the goal. Stories of single-person conflict work well as plays or movies. Novels and larger story arches tend to have “groups” in conflict.

A movie in a series or a single chapter in a book might seem to be about interpersonal conflicts, but once you discover the entire story, it is often much more. Star Wars is not about Luke versus Darth Vader — it’s about a fallen republic versus a dictatorship, good versus evil on a much grander scale. Most authors use individuals to make a larger point.

Man versus Nature

A “man-versus-nature” plot features a central character against a natural event or other phenomenon that threatens the character or something important to the character. These stories are about a search for inner-strengh and confidence. Nature is not a “moral” entity — it simply is. To overcome nature requires something internal… a character must rise to the challenges faced.

Man versus Self

Generally not the source of a primary plot, internal struggles are commonly story elements we might consider “sub-plots” along the way. Since the most interesting character has some manner of internal flaw, an emotional issue to discover and conquer, there is an element of “man versus self” in great stories.

Man versus Man’s Work

It’s a cliché of sorts, but Frankenstein and most science fiction delves into the risks of technology without morality. When we create, we seldom think of the consequences. In modern stories, the “work” might be pollution or illness. These are morality plays, as the stories aim to caution readers against a complete faith in our creations.

Story

A story is built upon the conflicts created by a plot, unless the work is experimental or philosophical. A writer selects a setting for the plot and then throws in a few detailed characters. With a plot, setting, and characters, the story can begin.

Stories are plot-driven or character-driven. A plot-driven story captivates readers or audiences through the excitement of events. The characters are important, but the action takes precedence. Character-driven stories rely on interesting characters and their responses to situations. While the situations arise from the plot, readers or audiences remember the characters.

A story sits on a plot; it is the emotional reactions of and choices made by various characters or groups. The choices move the story to plot points, while each plot point creates yet another choice and the accompanying emotional issues. When we make a choice, there is some emotion involved. The choice results in more actions and reactions, leading to yet another choice. That is how life works — and how a great story works.

Story Theory

There is a theory that stories are written to unite a society and explain the social order to members of the community. We use stories to convey our values, morality, and social structure to the young, new members, and to reinforce the existing membership. Consider all stories “propaganda” if you wish, that is the extreme view of the theory. The plot serves as a way to carry the message, while the story depicts the message.

Ask yourself, “What is my lesson?” Are you illustrating a concept? An idea? Maybe a personal theory of human behavior. If a story lacks a lesson, even a cynical one, it lacks a coherent purpose. (It is possible to write a story without purpose, but rarely.)

Joseph Campbell

Joseph Campbell was a literary critic, philosopher, and anthropologist. His theories on story development, especially mythology, are recommended for all writers. Agree or disagree with his theories, Campbell managed to reveal common types of stories throughout the cultures and history. The Joseph Campbell Foundation maintains a website on his works and theories. http://www.jcf.org/

Start Quickly, End Faster

Modern stories, in all forms, tend to start quickly and end even faster. The middle of the story is two-thirds or more of the work. As a result, there is ample opportunity to explore sub-plots and twists.

Start Quickly

Readers and audiences with some exceptions, expect stories to start quickly. Readers and audiences do not want to wait for a story to capture their imaginations; they want to interact with the story immediately.

Contrary to elite opinion, reading a book and watching a screen are often interactive. Most people try to guess how or why a character will act. The worst insult a movie can receive is, “It was too predictable.” Audiences like a challenge. However, they do not want to be guessing what the storyline is.

Effective stories introduce the apparent primary challenge as quickly as possible. This is the situation that ignites the plot. Most episodes of the television series Law and Order open with the discovery of a body. You can’t start much faster.

Opinions vary as to what constitutes starting quickly. The following are our guidelines.

Type of Work Simple                Plot Introduced                                 Story Established

Short Story                    First paragraph or within 50 words           Within 150 words

Novella                                    By page three to five                                 By page ten

Hour-Long Script                          By page five                                         By page ten

Movie                                          Script By page ten                                   By page 25

Novel                  Within 25 to 50 pages or by the third chapter     Within 50 to 100 pages.

End Faster

Dramatic endings do not “drag” or feature lengthy commentaries. By the climax of action, any social commentaries are out of the way. Only a small number of issues remain unresolved, allowing readers and audiences an opportunity to enjoy the ride.

Scripts usually end faster than they start. A script with a 20-page beginning might end in ten to 15 pages. A novel starting over three chapters ends in one or two. Ending quickly leaves the audience excited, like a roller coaster ending with a steep drop.

Driving Forces

Most stories belong to one of two categories: character-driven or event-driven. Some authors favor memorable characters, while others concentrate on events. Your preference depends both on the genre and style chosen.

Character-Driven

A character-driven story relies upon the decisions and emotions of characters to advance the plot. The decisions in a character-driven story produce “chain reactions” and conflict. The events, regardless of how many people they affect, are triggered by characters within the story.

Villains tend to drive plots more actively than heroes. Heroes follow rules and tend to fit within traditional types. Villains are “free” to do as they (or authors) want.

Event-Driven

An event-driven story relies upon external events and circumstances to advance the plot. External events may be natural or human-initiated, as long as the initiator of the events is not a central character to the story. Natural disasters and wars serve as the foundations for many event-driven stories.

Consider stories set in World War II, which are often event-driven. The men responsible for the greater decisions are “off-stage” during the story.

Plot and Story Charts

The following plot and story chart illustrates the plot points of a story. When writing, it is helpful to create a similar chart and “fill in” the details.

Prologue Backdrop • Short setup or tease

• Useful when action is delayed within the story

• Establishes “history”

Beginning Challenge

(Catalyst) • Problem that launches the story

• Seldom the Big Event

• Shows life in collapse and chaos begins

• A false, then real challenge revealed

Conflict

(Simple Plot) • Man vs. Man

• Man vs. Nature

• Man vs. Self

• Man vs. Man’s Work

Big Event • Ends “beginning”

• Introduces primary conflict, complex plot

• Major characters known

• Establishes story’s direction

• No false Big Event

Middle Revelation

(Pinch) • Mid-story, usually the intermission point

• Character decides upon a course of action

• Protagonist learns about others; primarily about his or her self

• Sometimes a minor false revelation precedes the real

• “Point of no return”

• Leads to the crisis

Crisis • All seems lost

• Worst moments in story

Climax

(Showdown) • Pause, then action

• Question, state, accuse

• Crisis solved (or not) based upon the climax

• More drama / action than Big Event

End Resolution

(Denouement) • Winners and losers are known

• No loose ends remain

• New insights for characters

• Sometimes a brief false resolution

• Short section, fast paced

Epilogue Dawn • Most long stories have a false then real dawn.

• Last page or two

• Happily ever after… but…

• Leaves a question or two, without undoing the story

Prologue

Few current novels or films begin with a prologue, but it was once a common practice. Today, the first chapter might reveal backstory and serve as a prologue. Classic films, from the silent movies through the 1930s, featured opening “cards” with the backstory. This was a tradition from early novels — and even picked up in series books. A prologue sets the backstory through quick exposition.

Often a paragraph or two provides the information necessary. Consider any story set in a time of war: stating the period and location might be enough to inform readers. Additional backstory is dispersed throughout the story.

Catalyst / Inciting Incident

The catalyst of a story is the moment at which the primary character is thrust by circumstance into the action. The start of a war, a crime, winning a lottery, seeing “him” from afar — either good or bad, the catalyst is the event indicating our story has started.

For some reason, the primary character is starting to lose control. He or she has to regain power or a balance in life. In a romance novel, it is all about finding true love — especially in an unexpected way. In a crime novel, the reporting of the crime begins the chase.

Big Event

The big event relates to the catalyst and concludes the introduction of the story. A big event might be learning the perfect stranger is from the wrong family, as in Romeo and Juliet. The big event could be a murderer daring the detective to prove the case. The big event establishes the path of the story.

You seldom reach the main event without knowing the major characters, basic backstory, conflicts, and a bit of the psychology of the primary character. Some stories hold back a character or two, for drama, but hint at their existence. Readers do not want a writer to “cheat” however. A reader should be able to predict some events and at least guess at potential solutions to the story’s conflicts.

Pinch

The moment the main character decides there will be a showdown is known as the pinch. It might not be as simple as “I’m going to defeat the bad guy,” but it can be. More often, it is a decision to continue the quest for a solution, while admitting there is a risk. The decision to move ahead, to face conflict, is difficult and results in a “point of no return.”

In movies, the pinch situation and resulting decision might be the intermission. Plays often place the pinch on either side of two acts, so the audience can ponder the choice and wonder which path will be taken and why. Ideally, there is more than one possible choice — but all have consequences.

The “true natures” of various characters are revealed during the pinch. We see why the hero is heroic, and why the villain cannot see that he or she is wrong. The pinch reveals the psychological underpinnings of the story.

Crisis

Before the showdown, the primary character experiences a crisis of faith embodied by a crisis in the action. There is doubt, fear, and other troubling emotions. A great story has the reader or audience wondering if the main character will rise to the challenge. If there is not doubt of victory, there is no story.

Showdown & Resolution

The showdown is more than a battle between two people — it forces the main character to prove he or she understands any personal weaknesses and has overcome them. The resolution is not about the external victory as much as it is about the internal growth of a character.

Dawn

The end of a story as a dawn after the action concludes. Think of this as the start of the day after the conflict. In the last page or two, or the closing minutes of a script, there is a hint of future actions. This allows readers and audiences an opportunity to imagine what is not written.

Consider what happens after a romance. It’s “happily ever after… but…” and the reader can ponder all the possibilities. Maybe you show the criminal planning an escape from prison. Or maybe a new villain seems to have been created by circumstances. A good writer leaves a question or two unanswered, without undoing the story.

Structuring the Short Story

(From a workshop by Kristine Katharine Rusch and Dean Wesley Smith based on a series of workshops by Damon Knight)

This outline is the most concise way I've found to give writers a clue on what makes a story. Too often, beginning writers come up with clever dialog, or a character study, or a mood piece. Those have their place as part of a good story, but are (usually) not a story by themselves.

Seven-Point Plot Outline for Genre Short Stories:

The Beginning

1. Character -- someone the reader can experience the story through

2. Conflict/problem (the "collision idea") -- the presenting problem in the story is not always the true conflict of the story, but it works best if it's related somehow.

3. Setting (where most newbie writers are very weak)

The Middle

4. Character tries to solve the problem

5. Character must fail (not for stupid reasons, though) and things must get worse (even better if the well-meaning actions of the character make it worse)--this is the most common plot development that beginners miss.

The End

6. Climax - character tries to solve the problem again (and either fails or succeeds--either outcome is valid)

7. Validation (shows that the story is over)

--Writers can violate these rules only if they're very good writers and know what the rules are that they're breaking. Mainstream short stories will often have no beginning and no end (or, they're implied), but these 7 points are almost mandatory with genre stories.

Writing A Killer Query Can be Simple

By Natalie R. Collins

Query letters and synopses are the bane of writers every where. Extremely prolific authors with 200,000-word manuscripts suddenly suffer writer's block when faced with a letter that starts: "Dear Agent."

Why are these two products so difficult to write? Perhaps because we are making it harder than it needs to be. In today's column I will focus on query letters. Query letters are simple. There are only five parts to an effective query, although others will tell you there are four. This is the format that I follow:

1. Hook

2. Book description

3. Genre, word count, market

4. Your credentials

5. Ending

Sounds easy, right?

It is, if you remember to put it in perspective. A query letter is the tool that you will use to sell your work and yourself to an agent. This is your 30-second Superbowl spot. It needs to be brief, well-written, include all the vital information, and be snappy.

Let's start with the hook. What is the most important aspect of your work? You need to focus on something unique, original, and attention getting. I advise against using a question for your hook. This is an overused tactic, and one I'm sure that agents are tiring of. As an example, I will use my own query letter for for Outer Darkness, my second book. This query letter received a very high and positive response from the agents I queried.

1. Hook: Allison Marie Jensen is a rebellious young Mormon woman whose father rules his world and family like a god.

With this hook, I am hoping to give the agent a reason to want to read on and be compelled by my storyline. After you find the right hook, you move to the second part of your query, the book description.

2. Book Description: The Church sets his right in stone, and Allison chafes under the strictures of fundamental religion. Struggling to leave her abusive past behind, she sets out on a journey of self-discovery only to discover that in trying to destroy her father, the only person she has hurt is herself. Following a brutal attack, Allison retraces her tumultuous childhood years, trying to fill in the gaps of a patchwork memory. She uncovers a conspiracy by a series of Church leaders to cover up the abuses of a sexual predator. Determined to bring him, and those who didn't stop him, to justice, she sets out on a journey that drastically changes the lives of every member of her family--including her fanatically religious father. Stalked by her rapist, she ultimately discovers the worst betrayal is perpetrated by those who believe themselves to be following God's will.

Your book description should be as brief and compelling as you can possibly make it. Secondary plots and characters have no place here. You don't have the time for them. What you need to get to is the meat of your story. What drives this manuscript? After you have your description down, you move to genre, word count, and market.

3. Genre, word count, market: With recent events spotlighting Utah, including the 2002 Olympics and media coverage, and the trial of polygamist Tom Green, there has been much interest in Utah and the Mormon Church. This 80,000-word work, mainstream women's fiction, covers much of the history of the Mormon religion, and opens up to the world a closed society about which very little is known.

Should you always include a genre? In my opinion, no. I research the agent I am querying first, before trying to put a "tag" on my work. Most often, agents will decide what genre your work fits in, and you don't have to. If you do feel it necessary to use a genre, try to keep it broad and non-specific. From here, we move to your credentials.

4. Credentials: I have over twenty years writing experience, including eleven years with the largest daily newspaper in Salt Lake City. I also served as an editor for the 2001 and 2002 Sundance Film Festivals. Outer Darkness is based on my own upbringing as a Mormon. Through my work with Sundance, I have been approached by several independent producers interested in screenplay rights to Sisterwife (Booklocker, 2001), which is garnering excellent reviews, and was voted number seven in the annual Preditors & Editors Poll for 2002. I have two other books completed, and have started on my fourth.

Keep it short and sweet. Do not list every award you have received, or every school you have attended, but be careful not to leave something important out, also. After you have introduced yourself, end it on a brief, professional note.

5. Ending: Please let me know if you are interested in reading Outer Darkness. Best, Natalie R. Collins.

That's it. Nothing more is needed, except, of course, a SASE for those snail mail queries. If you divide your query into these five parts, it makes your job much easier. If you have included something that does not fit in one of these groups, you should seriously consider whether or not it is necessary to your query.

Queries should never be more than one page, and should always be professional written, edited, and proofread. Even email queries should contain your contact information, and should be professional.

In my next column, I'll be attempting to make a synopsis as easy as a query. Wish me luck. I'd rather sit on a den of fire ants.

Copyright © 2001-2002 Natalie R. Collins

Books Recommended for Authors

THE INSIDER'S GUIDE TO GETTING AN AGENT

By Lori Perkins

Writer's Digest Books, Cincinnati, Ohio , 1999, 244pp.

          For any writer trying to find an agent, I recommend this comprehensive book. Ms. Perkins gives the reader a look into the business life of an agent and what they do. Then she proceeds to give chapter by chapter steps toward finding the right agent, interesting her/him with a well-developed query, and offering query samples. She  lets a writer know what to expect from an agent, as well as gives interesting information into the bargaining procedures between agent and editors of publishing houses. I love this book and refer to it frequently when I am sending queries to agents.

_____________________________________________

THE FICTION DICTIONARY

By Laurie Henry

Story Press, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1995, 325pp.

A good knowledge of the terminology used to describe fiction is a must for well-informed writers.

The Fiction Dictionary gives you a comprehensive "writer's" dictionary that teaches as well as defines and points out well-chosen examples.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

THE WRITER'S GUIDE TO CHARACTER TRAITS

By Linda N. Edelstein, Ph.D.

Writer's Digest Books, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1999, 331pp.

This book examines dozens of personality types, revealing the motivations and influences behind a range of behaviors. Hundreds of quick-reference lists, charts and case scenarios supply the psychological bacground you need to make your characters believable and engaging.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CREATING CHARACTERS: How to Build Story People

By Dwight V. Swain

Writer's Digest Books, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1990, 197pp.

(If I have ever loved any book, it is this one. I learned more about writing from this book than any I've read. If you buy this book, I promise you will not be disappointed.)

This is the most helpful writer's book I've ever read. It is so well written, it reads almost like a novel while giving the reader one of the most comprehensive study courses there is on how to make your characters so believable that they come alive on the printed page. I highly reccommend this book to anyone who writes or wishes to start writing.

Book Marketing: Five Tips for Successful Online Book Promotion

http://www.selfpublishebooks.com/book-marketing.html

Book Marketing

Whether your book is self-published or published by a major publisher, take charge of book marketing by following the five tips below. Even if your book has been picked up by a major publishing house, they may do little in terms of book promotion. You have poured your heart and soul into your book, so don't drop the ball when it comes to publicity.

Five Book Marketing and Book Promotion Tips:

1. Search online for newsletters and web sites that address the target audience for your book. Contact the publisher of the newsletter or owner of the web site and send them a press release about your book. Some web site owners may be willing to consider your book for review. Rather than just sending them your book, contact them first to verify their mailing address. If your book is an ebook, offer them a complimentary download in exchange for a book review.

2. Find newsgroups that cater to your target audience and use your book marketing skills to let them know about your book by answering their questions and then posting information about your book as part of your signature line. Do not post a blatant ad about your book. Be helpful rather than solicitous.

3. Although it may be expensive to do book marketing in the offline world, the online world is full of opportunites. Many of today's bestselling authors first garnered notice in the online world by achieving success on Amazon. Do all you can to achieve this by promoting your book page on Amazon.

4. Kick off your online publicity by getting friends and family to read your book. ask them to spread the word. Have them select ten people from their email address book--friends, family or acquaintances--and send them a short email about your book.

5. Create excerpts of your book and submit them for publication in online newsletters. Make sure to include an author profile at the end that tells readers where they can purchase your book online.

Now that your book is written, turn your attention to book marketing and promotion. Read about book promotion products and services that have helped me to sell my book. Resolve to do a little every day. Each day, contact two publishers of online newsletters or post an answer to someone's question in an online forum making sure to include your book title and where it can be purchased online in your signature line. Whatever you do, commit to doing book marketing for at least two years after your book comes off the press. After pouring your heart and soul into your book, make a commitment to doing the same with book promotion.

Note: One of the most important things that authors fail to do is build a web site that draws targeted readers to your site. Learn how to do so by reading the article below. Don't just put up a web site that will only be visited by your family and friends. Build a site that will actually draw interested readers who will want to buy your book, so you'll get book sales while you sleep. The toolset I recommend and the one I use myself does not require any technical knowledge.

Make an Informercial and Promote Your Book, Product or Service

Book Marketing Plan - A Book Marketing Strategy for Success

Ebook Website Design

Information Marketing System - Build an Empire from Your Book

Book Promotion

Internet Book Promotion

Self Publish Ebooks

http://www.selfpublishebooks.com/writing-a-press-release.html

7 Tips for Writing a Press Release to Promote Your Book, Product or Service

Writing a Press Release ...

When you want to get the word out about something, a new book you have written, an event you are sponsoring or a product you are offering, one of the best ways to get it in front of a lot of people is to write a press release.

Also known as a media release or news release, a press release is written as a news article and contains important information regarding whatever it is that you are promoting. Reporters and news agencies can pick up your release and either print it in their publication or contact you for further information. It is a quick, fairly simple method of promotion, but there are some consistent rules that should be followed.

Before I give you tips to write a press release that will get your book, product or service in the news, let me tell you about my recent experience. November is National American Indian Heritage Month, so I wrote a press release tying in this event to some material in my book Keepers of the Children: Native American Wisdom and Parenting Rather than just send a free release, I put out a little bit of money to have a professional editor work with me to target specific areas and publications for my release.

Targeting is essential because it gets your press release into the hands of those most likely to publish it. With this service, you'll also get detailed analytics. My press release went out to 50,989 media outlets with 1161 reads. This resulted in over 2000 sales of my book. Not a bad deal for a 30-day period for a book that is more than 4 years old. Now, that you understand the purpose Press Release Distribution get started or read on.

7 Tips for Writing a Press Release

1. Capture their attention. The headline is your first chance to capture your reader's attention, and the first paragraph, the lead, is your second chance. This is one of the most important steps in writing a press release. If you don't make the grade on either of these, no one is going to read your release. Write a compelling headline that is descriptive, brief (no more than 80 characters including spaces) and makes your reader want to read more.

2. Remember the Six Serving Men of Creativity. Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem about the six serving men of creativity and journalists have long held to those six ?men?: who, what, when, where, why and how. All of these should be answered in your first paragraph.

3. Make it Newsworthy. You are not writing and article or a story, you are writing a newsworthy piece of journalism. When you write a press release, you are looking for the angle for your piece, think along those lines. Are journalists really going to care if you wrote a book on weight loss, or is it more newsworthy to play up the fact that your book highlights a revolutionary, new process that allows people to eat more of the foods they love? Find the newsworthy angle and play it up, but remember, it isn't a sales page so stay away from sales lingo. If possible, tie your angle into an upcoming event, like National Weight Loss Day.

4. Include Company Information. When writing a press release, you should devote one paragraph to company information. Give a brief history, or talk about what the company does. Include a quote or two from a key figure in the company. Don't go overboard with this part of the release, you don't want it to look like you are promoting the company. Remember, you are merely reporting the news.

5. Use Good Form. Write in a clear, concise manner and keep slang and trade jargon to a minimum. Don't use your press release as a sales page (yes, I said this before, but it bears repeating), write it as a solid news article, tailored to the reporters and news agencies that you want to pick it up.

6. Create a Boilerplate. A boilerplate is added the last part of writing a press release and is the one place where you can get away with marketing. Write up your company, product or whatever you are promoting in a brief, 3 or 4 sentence sales pitch. Include contact information and web addresses. This is your one and only place on your press release where you can actually get away with a little sales copy. The same boilerplate that you create can also be used for your other releases as well.

7. Signal the End. At the end of your release, it is a standard practice to include # # # centered a space below the last line of your text, usually the boilerplate. This lets your reader know that they have reached the end of the release. It also puts a professional polish on your release.

By writing a press release and sending it via a Press Release Distribution service, you can:

* Reach 100,000 contacts * Increase web visitors to your website * Increase your search engine rankings * Get top placement of your news release on Yahoo! News * Get coverage in important media outlets like USA Today * Know exactly how many people have viewed and read your release which allows you to track your efforts.

Now that you have the tools to write an eye catching, newsworthy press release, sign up with the oldest and best Press Release Distribution service on the web. This is one of the best ways to promote your book, product or service. The world is waiting for your news!

Articles to Help with Your Query Letter

How to Query an Agent
How to Write a Dynamite Query Letter
The Art of the Query
How to Write an Attention-getting Query Letter
The Art of the Query
The Complete Nobody's Guide to Query Letters
The Query (Or Proposal) Letter
Writing a Query Letter That Sells
How to Write a Query
Master The Art Of The Query Letter
How to Write a Dynamite Query Letter
How to Write a Query Letter -- For Articles
Writing Effective Queries
How to write a query letter
Writing A Good Query Letter
Sample Query - pdf
Query Letter Workshop - pdf
Demystifying the Query Letter
Sample Novel Query Letter

Winning Query Letter Samples
Query Letter FAQ
Master the art of the query letter
How to write a query letter
Quick Query Letter Checklist
Writing Your Cover Letter
Submission Primer 101
Perfect Query Letters
What should be in a query letter
Preparing E-mail Queries
The Last Query
Email Query DOs and DON'Ts
A Terrific Query Letter
How To Write Great Queries
The Novel Query
Query for an Agent
Writing a Query Letter That Sells
How to Write a Query Letter

Writing & Publishing Tips: How to Get a Top Literary Agent & Sign That Coveted Six-Figure Deal
By Susan Harrow

Top literary agents get about 400-1,000 unsolicited queries every month from hopeful book authors. Publishing houses sometimes juggle 5,000. Most of my private clients and participants in my seminar "How to Get a Six-Figure Book Advance" ask me, "How is an author supposed to get an agent's attention when there is so much competition?"

First of all, don't write a book-- write a book proposal. Publishers buy ideas, not books. To capture a reputable literary agent's attention, you'll need to show that you're a media star, or a star in the making. Good writing can be bought but star power can't.

Here are five more tips to landing a top literary agent and a six-figure advance:

1. Do your research.
 
Literary agents specialize in very specific interests. For example, my agent loves tearjerkers but won't take on books that involve children in peril. You want an agent who has represented books similar to yours, who sells books on a regular basis, who is devoted to you, and has the time to give you a little guidance through the literary labyrinth.

Sometimes a newer, less experienced literary agent who is hungry for business is more dedicated and has more time to spend with you than an established one with a reputable cadre of authors. I recommend two ways to find the literary agent right for you:

- Look in the acknowledgements of books similar to your topic. A happy author always thanks his literary agent. Once you've located your ideal agents, become familiar with their tastes, learn everything you can about their interests, pet peeves, and preferences, and review their websites for submission guidelines. Show that knowledge in your query letter or initial phone conversation.

- Read Publisher's Weekly, Publisher's Lunch, and Variety to see who sold what and for how much. You will get a sense of an agent's sensibility and be able to speak knowledgeably about the types of books they prefer when you know what's happening in the industry in general and in your area of expertise in particular. You'll know more than most people who submit proposals as you'll be apprised of books that aren't even published yet and movie deals in the making. And you'll get a sense of market trends.

2. Write a book proposal that reads like a thriller.

After you've located the agents you want to approach, the next step is to complete your book proposal. Once interested by your call or query letter, the very best literary agents move at hyper-speed. They'll want to see your book proposal-- now. They'll either ask you to Fed Ex or e-mail it.

There is a real art to writing a best-selling book proposal that makes the literary agent you've chosen say, "I want this person as a client." To make your book proposal read in one sitting, you'll want to write in short paragraphs with strong headlines. Be sure to give the chosen agent an immediate impression of how your book will read by writing the proposal in the same style as your book.

Find unusual, quirky, provocative tidbits about your subject that will entice the literary agent to say, "Wow, I never knew this." Imagine the kind of tips that a terrific magazine article would include. When an editor at a top New York publishing house is reading your book proposal she is thinking, what kind of media exposure will we be able to get for this book? Can we get magazine feature articles, newspaper pieces, radio shows? Will the subject matter and the author interest the producers of "Good Morning America," "The Today Show," CNN, or "Oprah"?

3. Prove you have a platform.

The one thing that thrills a New York publisher the most is your platform. Your platform is simply your reach. How many people are influenced by your ideas worldwide? To simplify this even further, a publisher wants to know one thing and one thing only (once they are interested in the subject matter of your book), and that is? how many books are you going to sell and to whom. You'll need to demonstrate that you're a great media guest, that you have an audience eager to snap up your books, and that you have a proven track record for selling your books or wares.

4. Reveal how your past performance predicts future behavior.

Map out each venue and determine how many people are in attendance and how many of those people will buy your book. Include workshops, seminars, fairs, media appearances, book signings, keynotes, teleseminars, webinars, events, newsletter lists, blogs, partnerships, etc. Quantify everything in great detail. Estimate and base potential sales on past sales you've completed.

5. Show you are the one.

Show that there is a clear need for your book and that you are the only one who can write it. In other words, what problems are you solving and why are you the undisputed expert? What gap in the market are you filling? One of my clients whose topic was about how to be the very best at what you do and who you are, had a black belt, was a concert violinist, and had given seminars at The White House. She walked her talk, and lived her words. You need to have top-notch skills in order to gain the interest of a high caliber literary agent.

Follow these tips, and you can land a top literary agent and a six-figure deal. I hope to see your name on the New York Times best-seller list!

Media coach & marketing strategist, Susan Harrow, can help you get paid $100,000 or more for your book. For over 17 years, she has helped speakers, authors and entrepreneurs get 6-figure book advances. In her book, Get a Six Figure Book Advance, Susan explains the 15 steps to making big money on your next book proposal. Buy it now and receive $450 worth of free bonuses at: http://prsecretstore.com/sixfigurebookproposaljanal.